1. Field of the Invention
The present invention is directed to instruments employing a probe, and more particularly, a method and apparatus of mechanical property mapping using a probe microscope having at least two actuator elements to, for example, perform high speed force curve measurements.
2. Description of Related Art
Developments in nanotechnology have enabled mechanical experiments on a broad range of samples including single molecules, such that fundamental molecular interactions can be studied directly. The mechanical properties of biological molecules, in particular, such as actin filaments and DNA has lead to the development of a range of instrumentation for conducting these studies. In this regard, systems and methods differing in force and dynamic ranges currently being used include magnetic beads, optical tweezers, glass microneedles, biomembrane force probes (BFP), scanning probe microscopy (SPM), including atomic force microscopy (AFM).
With a force sensitivity on the order of a few pico-Newtons (pN=10−12 N), an AFM is an excellent tool for probing fundamental force interactions between surfaces. AFM has been used to probe the nature of attractive van der Waals and attractive/repulsive electrostatic forces between systems such as metal probes and insulating mica surfaces, and insulating probes on insulating and conducting samples with materials such as silicon nitride, diamond, alumina, mica, glass and graphite. Other applications include the study of adhesion, friction, and wear, including the formation or suppression of capillary condensation on hydrophilic silicon, amorphous carbon and lubricated SiO2 surfaces.
More particularly, for biological molecules, force is often an important functional and structural parameter. Biological processes such as DNA replication, protein synthesis, drug interaction, to name a few, are largely governed by intermolecular forces. However, these forces are extremely small. With its sensitivity in the pico-Newton scale, the SPM is particularly adapted to analyze these interactions. In this regard, SPMs have been used to generate what are known as force curves that provide particularly useful information for analyzing very small samples.
The knowledge regarding the relation between structure, function and force is evolving and therefore single molecule force spectroscopy, particularly using SPM, has become a versatile analytical tool for structural and functional investigation of single bio-molecules in their native environments. For example, force spectroscopy by SPM has been used to measure mechanical properties of samples such as the binding forces of different receptor-ligand systems, observe reversible unfolding of protein domains, and investigate polysaccharide elasticity at the level of inter-atomic bond flips. Moreover, molecular motors and their function, DNA mechanics and the operation of DNA-binding agents such as proteins in drugs have also been observed. Further, the SPM is capable of making nano-mechanical measurements (such as elasticity) on biological specimens, thus providing data relative to subjects such as cellular and protein dynamics.
Another main application of making AFM force measurements is in materials science where the study of mechanical properties of nano-scale thin films and clusters is of interest. For example, as microstructures such as integrated circuits continue to shrink, exploring the mechanical behavior of thin films from known properties of the materials becomes increasingly inaccurate. Therefore, continuing demand for faster computers and larger capacity memory and storage devices places increasing importance on understanding nano-scale mechanics of metals and other commonly used materials. In a typical case, an AFM probe interacts with the sample by indenting into the sample, causing plastic and elastic deformation. The measurement of the force required for the indentation and the resultant indentation depth gives an indication of the elastic modulus and hardness, given appropriate knowledge of the tip shape. If the measurement depends on the indentation rate, the time dependent portion thus provides information regarding the viscoelasticity and viscous flow of the samples under test.
Probe microscopes (PMs), including instruments such as the atomic force microscope (AFM), are devices that typically use a sharp tip and low forces to characterize the surface of a sample down to atomic dimensions. Generally, AFMs include a probe having a tip that is introduced to a surface of a sample to detect changes in the characteristics of the sample. In this case, relative scanning movement between the tip and the sample is provided so that surface characteristic data can be acquired over a particular region of the sample, and a corresponding map of the sample surface can be generated. However, PMs also include devices such as molecular force probes (MFPs) that similarly use a probe to characterize sample properties but do not scan.
In one application of AFM, either the sample or the probe is translated up and down relatively perpendicularly to the surface of the sample in response to a signal related to the motion of the cantilever of the probe as it is scanned across the surface to maintain a particular imaging parameter (for example, to maintain a setpoint oscillation amplitude). In this way, the feedback data associated with this vertical motion can be stored and then used to construct an image of the sample surface corresponding to the sample characteristic being measured, e.g., surface topography. Other types of images are generated directly from the detection of the cantilever motion or a modified version of that signal (i.e., deflection, amplitude, phase, friction, etc.), and are thus not strictly topographical images.
In addition to surface characteristic imaging such as topographical imaging, the AFM can probe nano-mechanical and other fundamental properties of samples and their surfaces. Again, AFM applications extend into applications ranging from measuring colloidal forces to monitoring enzymatic activity in individual proteins to analyzing DNA mechanics.
When measuring biological samples, it is useful to measure, for example, the stiffness of the sample; in one example, to separate salt crystals from DNA or to separate the DNA from a hard surface. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,224,376, assigned to the assignee of the present invention, an atomic force microscope is described in which the system can map both the local the stiffness (force spectroscopy) and the topography of a sample. In the preferred implementation, a stiffness map of the sample is obtained by modulating the force between the tip and sample during a scan by modulating the vertical position of the sample while keeping the average force between the tip and the sample constant. The bending of the cantilever, which is a measure of the force on the tip, is measured by an optical detector that senses the deflection of a light beam reflected from the back of the cantilever. In a simple example, the AFM and force spectroscopy apparatus of this patent has been used to study DNA laying on a glass surface or inorganic and organic composite materials with homogeneous and heterogeneous strictures. Modulating the force and then imaging the local stiffness of the sample has the advantage that stiffness images provide local mechanical property mapping beyond conventional topographic mapping. Notably, a key element of the probe microscope is its microscopic sensor, i.e., the probe. The probe includes a microcantilever, the design and fabrication of which is well-known in the field, which is typically formed out of silicon, silicon nitride, or glass, and has typical dimensions in the range of 10-1000 microns in length and 0.1-10 microns in thickness. The probe may also include a “tip,” which, particularly in AFM, is typically a sharp projection near the free end of the cantilever extending toward the sample. In the more general field of probe microscopy, the tip may be absent or of some other shape and size in order to control the particular type, magnitude, or geometry of the tip-sample interaction or to provide greater access to chemically modify the tip surface.
The second key element of a probe microscope is a scanning mechanism (“the scanner”), which produces relative motion between the probe and the sample. It is well known by those in the field that such scanners may move either the tip relative to the sample, the sample relative to the tip, or some combination of both. Moreover, probe microscopes include both scanning probe microscopes in which the scanner typically produces motion in three substantially orthogonal directions, and instruments with scanners that produce motion in fewer than three substantially orthogonal directions.
Turning to FIGS. 1A-1E and 2, force spectroscopy using SPM is illustrated. More particularly, FIGS. 1A-1E show how the forces between a tip 14 of a probe 10 and a sample 16, at a selected point (X,Y) on the sample, deflect a cantilever 12 of probe 10 as the tip-sample separation is modulated in a direction generally orthogonal to the sample surface. FIG. 2 shows the magnitude of the forces as a function of sample position, i.e., a force curve or profile.
In FIG. 1A, probe 10 and sample 16 are not touching as the separation between the two is narrowed by moving the sample generally orthogonally toward the sample surface. Zero force is measured at this point of the tip-sample approach, reflected by the flat portion “A” of the curve in FIG. 2. Next, probe 10 may experience a long range attractive (or repulsive force) and it will deflect downwardly (or upwardly) before making contact with the surface. This effect is shown in FIG. 1B. More particularly, as the tip-sample separation is narrowed, tip 14 may “jump” into contact with the sample 16 if it encounters sufficient attractive force from the sample. In that case, the corresponding bending of cantilever 12 appears on the force profile, as shown in FIG. 2 at the curve portion marked “B.”
Turning next to FIG. 1C, once tip 14 is in contact with sample 16, the cantilever will return to its zero (undeflected) position and move upwardly as the sample is translated further towards probe 10. If cantilever 12 of probe 10 is sufficiently stiff, the probe tip 14 may indent into the surface of the sample. Notably, in this case, the slope or shape of the “contact portion” of the force curve can provide information about the elasticity of the sample surface. Portion “C” of the curve of FIG. 2 illustrates this contact portion.
In FIG. 1D, after loading cantilever 12 of probe 10 to a desired force value, the displacement of the sample 16 is reversed. As probe 10 is withdrawn from sample 16, tip 14 may either directly adhere to the surface 16 or a linkage may be made between tip 14 and sample 16, such as via a molecule where opposite ends are attached to the tip 14 and surface 16. This adhesion or linkage results in cantilever 14 deflecting downwards in response to the force. The force curve in FIG. 2 illustrates this downward bending of cantilever 14 at portion “D.” Finally, at the portion marked “E” in FIG. 2, the adhesion or linkage is broken and probe 10 releases from sample 16, as shown in FIG. 1E. Particularly useful information is contained in this portion of the force curve measurement, which contains a measure of the force required to break the bond or stretch the linked molecule.
An example of a sample force measurement as described above is shown in FIG. 3 where two complimentary strands of DNA 20 are immobilized on the tip and sample surfaces 22 and 24, respectively. By modulating the tip-sample separation, a force curve such as that shown in FIG. 2 can be generated. As a result, a quantitative measurement of the forces and energetics required to stretch and un-bind the DNA duplexes can be mapped.
In sum, a simple force curve records the force on the tip of the probe as the tip approaches and retracts from a point on the sample surface. A more complex measurement known as a “force volume” measurement, is defined by an array of force curves obtained as described above over an entire sample area. Each force curve is measured at a unique X-Y position on the sample surface, and the curves associated with the array of X-Y points are combined into a 3-dimensional array, or volume, of force data. The force value at a point in the volume is the deflection of the probe at that position (x, y, z).
This example relates specifically to AFM force measurements that use cantilever deflection as a measure of force, but those skilled in the art will recognize that there are other physico-chemical properties that can be measured using substantially similar probes, instrumentation, and algorithms.
Although SPMs are particularly useful in making such measurements, there are inherent problems with known systems. In particular, typical SPMs use conventional fine motion piezoelectric scanners that translate the tip or sample while generating topographic images and making force measurements. A piezoelectric scanner is a device that moves by a microscopic amount when a voltage is applied across electrodes placed on the piezoelectric material of the scanner. Overall, the motion generated by such piezoelectric scanners is not entirely predictable, and hence such scanners have significant limitations.
A conventional AFM 30 including a piezoelectric scanner 32 is shown in FIG. 4. Scanner 32 is a piezoelectric tube scanner including an X-Y section 34 and a Z section 36. In this arrangement, Z section 36 of scanner 32 is adapted to support a sample 42.
To make a force measurement, section 34 of scanner 32 translates sample 42 relative to probe 44 of AFM 30 to a selected position (x,y). As noted previously, to actuate scanner 32, sections 34, 36 include electrodes placed thereon (such as 38 and 40 for the X-Y section) that receive appropriate voltage differentials from a controller that, when applied, produce the desired motion. Next, Z section 36 is actuated to translate sample 42 toward a tip 46 of probe 44, as described in connection with the force curve measurement shown in FIGS. 1A-1E and 2. Again, as tip 46 interacts with sample 42, a cantilever 48 of probe 44 deflects. This deflection is measured with a deflection detection system 50. Detection system 50 includes a laser 51 that directs a light beam “L” towards the back of cantilever 48, which is reflective. The beam “L” reflects from cantilever 48, and the reflected beam “L” contacts a beam steering mirror 52 which directs the beam “L” towards a sensor 54. Sensor 54, in turn, generates a signal indicative of the cantilever deflection. Because cantilever deflection is related to force, the deflection signals can be converted and plotted as a force curve.
Standard piezoelectric scanners for SPMs usually can translate in three substantially orthogonal directions, and their size can be modified to allow scan ranges of typically several nanometers to several hundred microns in the X-Y plane and typically <10 microns in the Z-axis. Moreover, depending on the particular implementation of the AFM, the scanner is used to either translate the sample under the cantilever or the cantilever over the sample.
The limitations described above pertaining to typical scanners in SPMs are in many cases acceptable in applications where a probe microscope is being used in conventional imaging modes in which the XY motion is typically periodic and it is acceptable to use a relative measure of Z movement.
However, force spectroscopy experiments typically demand more precise control of relative tip-sample motion, particularly in the Z axis (the axis substantially perpendicular to the sample surface).
Typical piezoelectric scanners do not exhibit linear motion, i.e., a given change in the applied drive voltage to the piezo will result in a different magnitude of motion in different areas of the operating range. Typical piezoelectric scanners also commonly exhibit hysteretic motion, i.e., if a particular voltage ramp is applied to the scanner and then the ramp is re-traced exactly in reverse, one finds that the scanner follows a different position path on the extend versus the retract. Piezoelectric scanners also “creep,” which means that they continue to extend or retract for a period of time after the applied drive voltage has stopped changing. Piezoelectric tube scanners also typically have low resonant frequencies in the Z-axis. Those skilled in the art recognize that this represents a serious limitation on the range of operating speeds for which the scanner is useful. This is because the piezoelectric material undergoes complex oscillatory motion when passing through and near the resonant frequency.
Any one or more of these limitations clearly jeopardize the integrity of the tip-sample motion, and therefore the corresponding data collected is of marginal usefulness. Overcoming these limitations is one of the key goals of this invention.
Because of the low resonant frequencies in the Z axis when an AFM utilizing a piezoelectric scanner is employed to obtain force curve measurements, the time required for the Z section 36 to actuate and translate the sample 42 and tip 46 towards one another, into contact with one another, and away from one another to obtain the force curve measurement can be anywhere between 1/10 second to 1 second. Therefore, in order to obtain the requisite number of force curve measurements for a sample when performing a force volume analysis on the sample, where approximately 10,000 force curve measurements are obtained on the sample, the overall process for the force volume measurement normally takes over one hour. On many occasions, this length of time for performing the force volume measurement presents problems in that the integrity of the sample can become severely degraded or altered over the length of time during which the force curve measurements are obtained. Often, as a result, the composition and/or mechanical properties of the sample at the beginning of the force volume measurement can be very different from the composition and properties present near the end of the force volume measurement. Also, due to the hysteresis and creep present in the movement of the piezoelectric scanners, over the length of time and the number of force curve measurements for the force volume measurement, the motion of the tip along the Z axis in response to the actuation of the Z section is highly variable. As a result, because the motion of the tip for each of the force curve measurements may not be the same, and most likely is not the same, the data obtained from the force curve measurements will not be accurate concerning the property measurements for the sample.
Overall, the field of SPMs utilized in making force curve and force volume measurements was in need of a scanner having an actuator for the probe and tip capable of enabling force curve measurements to be obtained at a much faster rate. Moreover, the actuator should also be capable of obtaining force curve measurement data in this faster process that is highly accurate quantitative data. Further, while performing this faster and more accurate force curve measurement, the scanner should also enable the probe to be actuated by the scanner in a conventional scanning mode, such as tapping, contact, torsional resonance, or shear force modes to obtain imaging data on the sample without detrimentally affecting the accuracy of the data obtained or the speed of performing the force curve measurements.